Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) is expressed in glial cells within the central and peripheral nervous systems. CNTF stimulates gene expression, cell survival or differentiation in a variety of neuronal cell types such as sensory, sympathetic, ciliary and motor neurons. In addition, effects of CNTF on oligodendrocytes as well as denervated and intact skeletal muscle have been documented. CNTF itself lacks a classical signal peptide sequence of a secreted protein, but is thought to convey its cytoprotective effects after release from adult glial cells by some mechanism induced by injury. Interestingly, mice that are homozygous for an inactivated CNTF gene develop normally and initially thrive. Only later in adulthood do they exhibit a mild loss of motor neurons with resulting muscle weakness, leading to the suggestion that CNTF is not essential for neural development, but instead acts in response to injury or other stresses. The CNTF receptor complex is most closely related to, and shares subunits with the receptor complexes for interleukin-6 and leukemia inhibitory factor. The specificity conferring alpha subunit of the CNTF complex (CNTFR alpha), is extremely well conserved across species, and has a distribution localized predominantly to the nervous system and skeletal muscle. CNTFR alpha lacks a conventional transmembrane domain and is thought to be anchored to the cell membrane by a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol linkage. Mice lacking CNTFR alpha die perinatally, perhaps indicating the existence of a second developmentally important CNTF-like ligand. Signal transduction by CNTF requires that it bind first to CNTFR alpha, permitting the recruitment of gp130 and LIFR beta, forming a tripartite receptor complex. CNTF-induced heterodimerization of the beta receptor subunits leads to tyrosine phosphorylation (through constitutively associated JAKs), and the activated receptor provides docking sites for SH2-containing signaling molecules, such as STAT proteins. Activated STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus to bind specific DNA sequences, resulting in enhanced transcription of responsive genes. The neuroprotective effects of CNTF have been demonstrated in a number of in vitro cell models as well as in vivo in mutant mouse strains which exhibit motor neuron degeneration. Intracerebral administration of CNTF and CNTF analogs has also been shown to protect striatal output neurons in rodent and primate models of Huntington's disease. Treatment of humans and animals with CNTF is also known to induce weight loss characterized by a preferential loss of body fat. When administered systemically, CNTF activates downstream signaling molecules such as STAT-3 in areas of the hypothalamus which regulate food intake. In addition to its neuronal actions, CNTF and analogs have been shown to act on non-neuronal cells such as glia, hepatocytes, skeletal muscle, embryonic stem cells and bone marrow stromal cells.